Verbal Subject Analysis II: Periodical and Other Databases

Subject Cataloging vs. Indexing

• Both are related to the subject analysis of resources. 
• Subject cataloging  is a term used for the subject analysis operations in library cataloging. 
• Indexing is a term generally used for the subject analysis operations in various other resource organization contexts, including periodical databases and search engines. 

Brief History of Periodical Indexes

• Around the turn of the 20th century, the library community decided not to add article citations to the catalog. 
• This development led to the growth of the commercial indexing industry. 
• The result of this has been:
• Split files
• Fees for licensing database content
• Difficulty fulfilling Cutter's 2nd objective

Analytical Cataloging

• Analytical cataloging techniques are needed in order to provide access to the component parts of composite information resources, most commonly:
• Book chapters
• Proceedings articles (usually of academic meetings)
• Journal articles
• Definition from AARC2: Analysis is the process of preparing a bibliographic record that describes a part (or parts) of an item for which a comprehensive entry is made.

Analytical Cataloging Techniques

• Complex entries made within the record of composite work [cheap]:
• Analytical added entries:
• Use 740 tag for second of two works mentioned in title of item
• Note area for comprehensive entry of larger work:
• Use 505 tag for structured display of table of contents.
• Separate records created for the component parts of composite works ("In" Analytics)[expensive]:
• Use 773 to trace the component part record to parent record

Analytical Access to Journal Content

• Decision to not provide analytical access to journal content (i.e. directly to articles) was because of the expense:
• Excessive number of records would have to be created.
• Additional authority work would need to be done.
• As a result, through the 20th century, cataloging and periodical indexing/bibliography creation techniques evolved separate approaches. 

Overview Comparison

• Catalog
• Authority work
• Cataloging records represents the holdings of a library
• Periodical indexes:
• Subject indexes are extensive topical bibliographies (often include books and book chapters, too), usually covering large swaths of "territory"
• Domain-wide indexes (e.g. Index Medicus) attempt to capture an entire discipline (may include book chapters, too)
• No single library could ever own all items referred to in exhaustive bibliographies/indexes, thus leading to ILL (inter-Library Loan) services
• Authority work nonexistent (except controlled vocabularies)

Surrogate Records in Periodical Databases

• As is the case with library catalogs, periodical databases contain structured surrogate records. 
• This structuring is fairly consistent across periodical databases, both in terms of stored records (two part metadata model holds) and how records are displayed
• There is some authority control at work, but not in ways that you might think.

Collocation in Periodical Databases

• By subject - what about vocabulary control?
• By author - what about authority control?
• By journal - what about authority control?
• By language
• By publication type
• By date
• Etc., etc., etc. 

In all Collocation Contexts: MATCH!

• EXAMPLES:
• Indexers → author name → match ← author name ← users
• Indexers → journal name → match ← journal name ← users
• Indexers → vocabulary → match ←vocabulary ← users

Inverted File Structures

• How surrogate records are physically stored in the index of a database.
• Each surrogate record has a unique identifies (also called a pointer)
• Each word and phrase of the index has a record in the index; each record contains the UI for each surrogate record that contains that word or phrase:
• Dog: 235, 527; 5,345,672; 117,127,923
• Cat: 127; 2,753; 917,538; 327,543,238

How is Surrogate Information Stored?

• Print periodical indexes and bibliographies. 
• Online periodical databases:
• Examine sample database record for left side metadata elements
• Examine advanced search interface
• EXAMPLES:
• PubMed MEDLINE
• Library Literature
• ALWAYS KNOW THE START DATE OF YOUR ONLINE PERIODICAL DATABASE!
• Manual search of the literature is often needed for exhaustive searches
• Retrospective conversion of print indexes to online is not generally undertaken by database providers due to expense. 

Periodical Database Characteristics

• They usually hold more records than a library catalog.
• Information resources (i.e. journal articles) contain less information than the info resources in library catalogs and there are no detailed secondary navigation aids such as book indexes.
• More fields (i.e. left side elements) available for search word qualification.
• Important to distinguish database producing companies/organizations from database interface companies:
• Some companies/organizations provide both (e.g. PubMed MEDLINE)
• Other companies provide interface services, such as Dialog or EBSCO.

User Interfaces (UI) in Periodical Databases

• Common UIs employed in periodical databases:
• ISSN - uniquely numerical identification for individual serial publications
• Internal numbering systems within a periodical database, such as the PMID in MEDLINE (for known item searches)
• The most important UI is pre-Web and that is the "Address" of an article in the bibliographic universe (also known as the citation data) - also good for known item searches:
• Journal name
• Volume number (in some journals, the issue number also)
• First page number of article. 

Authority Control in Periodical Databases

• Titles - not controlled
• Authors - somewhat controlled:
• Indexers generally enter author name from the information resource
• Control rests with periodical editors, who often have policies on author names that may be different than other periodical editors
• Subjects - controlled:
• Controlled vocabularies are imposed across periodical  and over time by indexers
• However, subject searching is still subject to the problems associated with the "Great Pop vs. Soda Controversy"

Author Indexes in Periodical Databases

• Examine how author data is entered into surrogate records:
• Generally taken from the information resource in hand
• PubMed MEDLINE is an exception
• Some databases will provide lists of author names from which to choose:
• Indicator of authority work?
• Library Literature is an example
• Subject Indexing in Periodical Databases
• Indexing approach is "information access," therefore depth indexing is the general rule. 
• Indexers index to the most specific, therefore, hierarchies remain important in controlled vocabularies. 
• Pre-coordination and post-coordination are important concepts.

Subject Indexes in Periodical Databases

• Depth Indexing:
• General goal is to provide subject access to the information contained in an article.
• However, this practice is not universal across database producers; therefore, determine the depth of indexing of the database you are searching by examining existing records
• Be aware of the lag time related to subject indexing of articles

Management of Controlled Vocabularies

• Homonymy:
• Addressed by domain specificity of most periodical databases
• Various forms of qualification are used, including parenthetical, hierarchy, and scope notes. 
• New concepts:
• Literary warrant is generally not employed in periodical database vocabularies
• New terms are added after new concepts have established themselves in the literature
• This poses a challenge if you are searching at a "research front" (may need to perform a keyword search strategy of the abstract field)

Some Vocabularies for Periodical Databases

• MeSH
• NLM MeSH Browser
• PubMed MeSH Database
• Library Literature
• EBSCO interface

Other Controlled Vocabulary Contexts

• Getty Museum (the folks who created ULAN)
• Subject Terms (search "cubist")
• Thesaurus of Geographic Names (compare "Soviet Union" and "Russia")
• Dublin Core permits various subject vocabularies:
• Specification of subject element
• DC Vocabulary Qualifiers

Web Content for Human Indexing

• A-Z Web Indexes:
• MEDLINEPlus Topics A-Z (organizes access to Web-based information for patients)

Indexing in Context

1. Obtain information resource
2. Describe information resource in surrogate record
3. Subject analyze information resource in surrogate record:
• Verbal 
• Classification

Article Indexing Process

• Two steps:
• Analyze information resource to generate list of candidate concepts that describe its subject content
• Translate those concepts into the controlled vocabulary of the database
• ISO Standard for article indexing - special attention should be paid to certain sources of information:
• Title
• Abstract (when provided)
• Introduction; opening and concluding paragraphs
• Illustrations, diagrams, etc and their captions
• Words or groups of words that are underlined, bold, etc.

Resource Description I: Surrogate Records and their Structure

The Concept of Metadata

Broadly speaking, "metadata" has been defined conventionally as "data about data," i.e. data that appears in surrogate records:

• Data on card catalog cards
• Data in online catalog records
• Data in a periodical database records
• Data in Google records

However, there are some in the cataloging world, most notably Michael Gorman, who distinguish bibliographic data from metadata.

Where do Metadata Records Appear?

As separate  surrogate records in a retrieval tool (records created independently of author):

• Typed on cards in card catalogs
• Library catalogs
• Cultural heritage digital repositories
• Periodical databases
• Webpage databases

In document header (records created by author).

Contexts of Metadata/Data Relationship

As the case for many terms in LIS, "metadata" has multiple meanings depending on context. 

Two principle contexts:

• Relationship between a surrogate record and the resource that it represents.
• Conventional definition of metadata in which the content of the surrogate represents the information resource ("we don't stuff books into the card catalog")
• Metadata elements are clues as to what constitutes metadata in this context:
• Title (The Shining) is metadata in reference to the item
• Author (Stephen King) is metadata in reference to item
• # of pages in The Shining is metadata in reference to item
• Relationship between a metadata element and that element's corresponding metadata content. 
• Additional metadata definitional conetxt
• Metadata element is the metadata, while metadata field content is data:
• TI is the metadata; The Shining is the data
• AU is the metadata; Stephen King is the data
• Metadata content represents the data in the surrogate record

Structure of Metadata Records

In nearly all cases, metadata records display a two-part structure:

• Left side metadata elements
• Right side metadata content
• EXAMPLE: 
• TI   (metadata element) = The Shining (metadata content)
• AU (metadata element) = Stephen King (metadata content)

Occurrence of Metadata Elements

Some elements commonly occur across different metadata schemas:

• AU  
• TI  
• SU  

Other elements occur less commonly:

• Those that describe unique aspects of specialized resources
• System requirement 

Modeling Metadata Element Sets

Metadata elements are often though about in terms of groups (i.e. sets) of elements on the left side of a metadata record. These sets serve as structural metadata models that provide information professionals with the elements that fully describe the various types of resources that exist in the bibliographic universe. A "metadata schema" establishes and degines a set of elements meeting the needs of a specific community. (e.g. AACR2 is the schema for cataloging community )

What is Resource Description?

Defent within the process of creating surrogates:

1. Obtain resource
2. Describe resource: All elements other than subject elements
3. Subject analyze resource:
1. Verbal
2. Classification

Two part metadata record:

• Left side element sets: Modeling metadata structure by way of sets of elements
• Right side metadata content: Data entry and the role of content standards (or lack thereof) and their consistent (or inconsistent) application.

Resource Description: Main Questions

Today: How do users ask for information?

• Left side element modeling for various information resources addresses this question.

Next time: What are common data entry problems and how to "control" for them (e.g. author names):

• Problem: Normal variation in "natural language" in particular, changes that occur over time. 
• The role of metadata content standards to address these problems

Definition of "Description"

Metadata elements that present the non-subject characteristics of a resource. The goal of the organizer is to provide enough descriptive information so that users are confident that a given resource meets their needs. Descriptive information is generally taken directly from the resource in hand (a long standing cataloging practice).  It is important to always keep in mind the type of resource to be described.

Purpose of Descriptive Access Points:

• To identify an entity known to a user.
• To collocate related resources:
• By an author
• By a title
• To aid in selection

Metadata Schemas and Description

When faced with the task of organizing resources, you can

• Devise a metadata schema by modeling required elements and then developing new rules

OR

• Select an existing metadata schema and follows its rules for content creation (if any)

The selection of an existing metadata schema is usually accomplished within your community:

• Cataloging librarians, who've developed the most sophisticated rule-book for descriptive cataloging - the AACR2.
• Metadata specialists, who've developed a general "reduced" element set - (Dublin Core)
• Specialized librarians, who've developed specialized element sets (VRA Core for describing digitized art history slides)

Metadata Schemas - Print Resources

Library cataloging

• Family of ISBDs [International Standard Bibliographic Description] (IFLA)
• Designed in the early 70s for international exchange of bibliographic data
• Family of schemas that are based on ISBD(G) (G=General)
• Intended to serve as the basis for national cataloging rules.
• Anglo-American Cataloging Rules (a big book of rules for catalogers)
• Standardizes cataloging practicesacross individual catalogers & over time
• Chapters 1-12 implement ISBD for Anglo-American catalogers
• Chapters 2-12  each cover a different kind of resource

Machine Metadata

Some metadata is complex and only suitable for machine processing. 

Example: Federal Geographic Data Committee, which was mandated in 1194 by Federal government to standardize geospatial data collection.

Basic Retrieval Tools

What retrieval tool should you use?

• For cited articles, consult a bibliography.
• For library items, search a catalog.
• For published articles, search a periodical database.
• For archived items, use an archival finding aid.
• For "published" web pages, use a search engine.

What is stored in retrieval tools?

Surrogate records - records that represent resources. If managed by a professional organizer they are structured surrogate records.

What are structured surrogate records?

Using a generic definition, structures are elements of individuals or things that exist across instances of those individuals or things (i.e. your skeleton, architectural elements of a house). In library terms, imagine the cards of a card catalog.
         
           Structures of a Card Catalog card:

• Author
• Title
• Subject

What is the purpose?

To provide enough information for users to determine whether or not they want to actually pursue acquisition of the resource. The library wants to be economical with the user's time, regardless of resource type (book, artifact, or webpage).

What are some types of surrogates?

• Appended lists (e.g. scholars who cite papers)
• Citation is criterion - most common type of bibliography
• cited scholarly articles
• Cited books and other types of resources
• Style guides serve as standardizing display mechanism over time:
• Across authors
• Across editors
• Across journals
• Across disciplines
• Compiled lists (e.g. free-standing bibliographies)
• Freestanding book-length works
• Found in catalogs (e.g. A Bibliography of Austin Dobson)
• Often the result of scholarly labor (i.e. used for tenure). including annotated bibliographies
• Can be collocated based on various combined criteria:
• Subject bibliographies
• Author bibliographies
• Bibliographies of a time period
• Language, location, publisher, form bibliographies
• Inventory lists (e.g. bookstores)
• Surrogate list of resources held by bookstores. 
• Intended to assist in book or other resource selection by patrons:
• Mystical Unicorn for books (browse for "Sarah Eagle")
• Amazon for books and other resources (keyword search for "Stephen King" and compare to advanced search capability to "limit" to an author search.

How are surrogates collocated?

Surrogates are collocated according to criterion (title, author, subject).

What is a library catalog?

A library catalog is a collection of surrogate records representing the collection of a single library (WorldCat). They have multiple access points that people can use to search for a resource like card catalogs or via electronic retrieval tools. Was created to help find what a user wants(author, title, name), to show what the library has (on an author, on a subject), or to assist in the choice of a book (bibliography, character).

What is an OPAC?

An OPAC is an Online Public Access Catalog. Interfaces for OPACs are either:

• "Drop down box" (UA Library)
• TRY IT! Keyword search for "dog" will retrieve different,limited results than a search for "dog" limited to the subject field.
• "Tabbed" interfaces (UNT Library, WorldCat)

How do you search for Periodical Literature?

Indexes are a collection of surrogate records that represent the analyzed contents of resources like:

• Journal articles
• Conference proceedings/articles
• Book Chapters
• Websites

They have additional access points other than the traditional author, title, subject like issue, volume, year, etc.

TRY IT! Compare keyword search for "dog" vs. qualified search for "dog" as a subject in PubMed.

How do you search for specialized documents (images, artifacts,etc.)?

There are databases and indexes of digitized cultural heritage artifacts (e.g. Library of Congress, TIMEA). Some collections offer surrogate records that present long descriptions of archival collections (de Grummond Collection, Archives Portal Europe)

For Further Reading:

Creekmore, L. (2016). Training your eye to see structure. ASIST Bulleting 42(2):31-32.

NISO. (1998). Printed information on spines [click "Z39-41.pdf" link]. Bethesda: NISO Press.

Valente, C. (2009). Training successful paraprofessional copy catalogers. Library Resources and Technical Services 53:219-230.

Weinberg, A. (2016). In defense of the card catalog. Folger Shakespeare Library.